Image source: Analysis of volcanic threat from Nisyros Island, Greece, with implications for aviation and population exposure, H. S. Kinvig et al, 2010

 The map demonstrates the area that would be directly affected if Nisyros erupted today. This aligns well with the mythical references to an eruption c1796/5 delineated as the Flood of Ogyges/ Birth of Athene.

Asia Minor: Atlantis, Asteroids, and the Birth of Athene © Nicholas Costa 2024

“Every word of it is true,” declares Plato in his Timaeus regarding the existence of Atlantis. Something in excess of 20,000 books have been published on the topic of Atlantis. Mainstream academia has long regarded it as fiction and come up with a number of hypotheses as to why Plato wrote the narrative; it is a fabricated moral tale; it is a philosophical analogy or a parody of Athens’ war against Syracuse. This line of reasoning was first given by academics at a time in the 19th century when it was surmised by many that all mythology was the fervid by-product of a fertile primitive imagination which at best merely signified the passing of the seasons. In 1841, Thomas-Henri Martin stated in Dissertation sur l’Atlantide’, Études sur le Timée de Platon / Study of Plato’s Timaeus that: “[Atlantis] belongs to another realm, which is not in the domain of space but of thought”.

However, since that time archaeology has been able to demonstrate the underlying truth of mythology through the discoveries of such places as Troy, Knossos, Mycenae, and Pylos to name but a few. Places once considered fantasies have been proved to have existed. In spite of these discoveries the position of mainstream academia regarding Atlantis has remained largely unchanged. The truth is that the answer lies in the extant texts and in plain sight.

The most influential translation of the Atlantis narrative was made by Benjamin Jowett (1817-1893), an English tutor, a theologian, translator, and Master of Balliol College, Oxford. His translation was published in 1871 and was a success even though certain scholars at the time criticized particular renderings, and noted many small errors. This erroneous translation has subsequently colored the popular view of Atlantis.

Atlantis Timeline: 9,000 Years Before Solon?

So many writers have picked up on the statement in Plato that the events concerning Atlantis and its destruction via cataclysmic earthquake and floods, had unfolded some 9,000 years earlier than Solon’s time. They choose to ignore the other statement that Plato’s dates originated from hieroglyphs written in the Temple of Neith in Sais, Egypt. They naively seek to write about or study climatic events sometime around 9500 BC despite the fact that at that time (9500 BC) both Egypt and Athens (who are the main protagonists in the Atlantis narrative) did not exist, these writers persist with an irrelevant analysis of conditions pertaining to that distant time.

The founding of Sais, where the Temple of Neith is located can be dated to circa 1240 BC, matching the mythological era of Attica’s founding father Theseus (1255- 1203 BC). Historically in 1250 BC major destruction occurred in various locations of mainland Greece and Asia Minor for reasons that have not yet been pinpointed by archaeologists. It heralded what has been termed as the ‘Collapse of the Bronze Age’.

Early Egyptian time reckoning was based upon lunar rather than solar months. There are approximately 12.3 lunar months in a solar year. The date, counting from circa 590 BC (the time when Solon visited Egypt), in lunar months, comes to 1321 BC. There are more dates in Plato’s narrative which substantiate this era, via the various named mythological figures that in antiquity were ascribed dates. All these dates range from circa 1796 BC through to the mid 1200’s BC.  The primary sources for ancient chronology are preserved in the extant sections of Julius Africanus, Eusebius and Georgius Syncellus as well as the Parian Marble. Admittedly there are some contradictions, but these are not insurmountable given the metaphorical nature of the named protagonists. Heracles for instance being a ‘demigod’ indicates the title of a sequence of human rulers as well as delineating environmental trauma and therefore accounts for the chronological disparity assigned to the name, in much the same way as for example the name Tudhaliyas represents a number of different ‘demigod’ Hittite rulers as well as a volcano.

Plato’s Atlantis narrative, and especially its destruction, is bracketed by two key dates which have hitherto been largely ignored. The first relates to a seminal natural disaster signified in mythology as the Birth of Athena/the Flood of Ogyges, which was dated in antiquity to 1796/5 BC. This incident, signified by the celebration of the Panathenaia festival dedicated to Athene. The second date is a second eruption circa 1327 BC and the effective commencement of the Greek takeover, notably Ionian, of the western seaboard of Asia Minor

Volcanic Eruption: The Eye of Athena or the Flood of Ogyges, 1796 BC

Readings of the mythological texts relating to this cataclysmic event indicate that an incoming bolide or bolides exploded above or actually impacted the Cos-Nisyros-Yiali volcanic field in the Mediterranean Sea. It precipitated a major volcanic eruption and tidal wave. The bolide was interpreted as Athena’s eye, and its fragmentation was interpreted as the birth of Athena who suddenly appeared spear in hand (lightning bolt) with a mighty shout (explosion) from the head of Zeus (the sky).

Ogyges was mythological ancient king of Attica and Boeotia and is associated with the flood of Ogyges, said to have covered the whole world and was so devastating that Attica remained without kings until the reign of Cecrops.

The 1796 BC date significantly coincides with the commencement of a period of known major population shifts in the Near East, the foundation of the Hittite Kingdom, the ingress of the so-called Hyksos (Amu) into Egypt, and the influx into Crete of a relatively advanced civilization (probably displaced Luwians) which engendered the Old Palace period on the island. Such a potential link to major regional upheaval has largely been missed by researchers whose sole focus has hitherto been on Thera (Santorini).

Significantly those who would gainsay that such an event happened, have only to look at the indicators modern researchers have uncovered: In 2007 researchers Salzer and Hughes found in Bristlecone pine trees a ring-width minima dating to 1791 and 1788 BC in two or more regions, corresponding to ice-core volcanic signals within 10 years of the minima. Although relatively little attention has been paid as to whether there were eruptions in the Nysiros-Yiali volcanic field, in 1996 Ioannis Liritzis and his colleagues found indications of eruptions in the region in the second millennium BC.

This is the period which saw the rise to prominence of the goddess Neith in Egypt, in whose temple at Sais the hieroglyphs were discovered.  In Timaeus, Plato tellingly confirms that Athena’s Egyptian counterpart was Neith. Comparisons between Neith and Athena reveal that the Egyptians knew of the disaster and that the two deities were alter egos, in conformity with Plato’s statement.

Goddesses Neith and Athena

Neith was referred to by the Egyptians as the ‘Lady of the West’. She was intimately associated with deities who were evidently volcanic metaphors. In one version she was born from the head of Geb.  Geb was the equivalent of the Greek volcanic deity Hephaestus with whom Athena is intimately linked. Like Hephaestus he was depicted as lame. Geb, if one thinks of lava streams, was also considered the father of snakes. Geb’s laughter caused earthquakes. Geb was depicted as a reclining man with his phallus pointed upwards (indicating an eruption) towards Nut (the sky). Athena was sometimes depicted as being married to Hephaestus. Neith was depicted as the consort of either Seth or of Ptah-Nun. Nun was the Egyptian equivalent of Poseidon (the sea) whilst Ptah was also equated by the Greeks with Hephaestus.

Apophis- the Incoming Bolide

In Egypt Neith was depicted as the mother of a nightmare character known as Apophis. Apophis was the Egyptian equivalent of Ogyges, a seminal metaphor for the catastrophe of 1796/5 BC. Bearing in mind the stories of Athena’s birth, and that Athena and the Egyptian goddess Neith were effectively once one and the same, Apophis is actually a metaphor for the incoming bolide which caused such major disruption in the region.  Apophis was depicted as having been spat out, as a by-product of Neith’s saliva into the sea.  His color was blue-green as were Athena’s eyes. This is also the color ascribed to Neith. His eye was regarded with dread; it was a portent of disaster. Athena’s eye symbol was the Gorgon’s head. It is worth noting that the round blue-green symbol used as protection from the evil eye which is still prominent in both Greece and the western regions of the Turkish mainland may have had its origins in this disaster.

Apophis engaged in a battle with Seth (a signifier for an erupting volcano) who was depicted as the son of Geb, an equivalent of the Greek volcano god Hephaestus. Both Apophis and Seth were evil.  The earliest texts and images of Seth fighting Apophis come from the time when part of Egypt was ruled by the Hyksos. The name Apop appears as the name of the first, last and an intermediate Hyksos ruler in Egypt which coincides with three probable volcanic eruptions c1796/5/ c1630/ c1550 BC.

The Book of Ezekiel renders a similar allusion, where the writer predicts how the prince of Gog, of the land of Magog, will lead a vast army, drawn from many nations, to invade the land of Israel. The Book of Revelation also makes reference to a coming satanic invasion by Gog and Magog at a time of cosmic upheaval. This evidently reflects the events surrounding the historical invasion of Egypt by the Hyksos.

Descriptions of Apophis

The implication that the original Apop /Apophis was in reality an incoming bolide landing in the sea is evident when considering Egyptian descriptions of him: He is described as ‘a world encircler’; he appeared in the sky before dawn; he was blue-green; he looked like a large snake over 14 meters long; he had a terrifying roar; he had a head of flint; he made his home in the water; he caused earthquakes; and he lived in a mountain in the west. In Greek mythology he is identified as a Titan king who helped Cronus in his war against Zeus – the War of the Gods.

The Second Eruption 1327 BC

The Hittite King Mursilli II reigned from 1330 BC (middle chronology) or 1321–1295 BC (short chronology.) 1327 BC is a highly significant date since according to the Hittite records something momentous happened in that year.  In Mursilli’s third year there was a sudden natural catastrophe. This is supported by the research of Zielinski and his colleagues (1994) who report a GISP2 ice core of an anomaly dated to 1327 BC, indicating a volcanic eruption.

Hittite mythology tells of a threatening mountain by the sea that ‘walked’. It was named Tudhaliyas and the name was adopted by a number of Hittite rulers from the 1700’s onward. Tudhaliyas was ”privileged among mountain gods in being armed and free to move his feet.” This myth evidently relates to a volcanic eruption. The name could also be the Hittite/ Luwian version of what later became the name Atlas ????? in Greek. Atlas was depicted as the leader of the Titanes (Titans) in their war against Zeus.

During the catastrophe, the Arzawan capital Apasa (Ephesus) was destroyed with the survivors either becoming enslaved or fleeing overseas. “I marched to Arzawa. As I reached the R. Sehiriya, the awesome Tarhunnas, my lord, manifested (his) grace: he hurled a thunderbolt. The land of Hatti saw it from behind, and the land of Arzawa saw it from the front. The thunderbolt itself hastened, and it struck Apasas, the city of Uhhazitis.” 

Enter the Maenads

Hittite tablets speak of King Mursilli chasing the Arzawans out to sea and killing them, this is mirrored in Greek mythology by the story of the god Dionysus chasing the Amazons out to sea and killing them. Another legend tells of an Amazon army led by Queen Aegea who drowned in the Aegean Sea.  It is at this point when one encounters the Maenads, the ‘mad women’ followers of Dionysus who were depicted in mythology as having previously been Amazons, but in reality they were the destitute refugees enslaved by Mursilli II. It is only after this point in time according to mythological chronology that one encounters myths concerning Amazons being located at Themiscyra on the Black Sea- evidently the area where many of Mursilli’s captives were resettled.

As in the Atlantis narrative, extant Hittite texts tell of an ongoing war between Greeks (labeled as Ahhiyawans) and the mighty empire carved out by the Hittites and Arzawans, who were also prime adversaries of Egypt.  Later texts refer to Greek mercenaries who were to be found as allies and bodyguards of the Egyptian Pharaoh.

Plato’s narrative states: “This mighty power (Atlantis) was arrayed against Egypt and Hellas and all the countries bordering on the Mediterranean. Then your city did bravely, and won renown over the whole earth. For at the peril of her own existence, and when the other Hellenes had deserted her, she repelled the invader, and of her own accord gave liberty to all the nations within the Pillars. A little while afterwards there were great earthquakes and floods, and your warrior race all sank into the earth; and the great island of Atlantis also disappeared in the sea. This is the explanation of the shallows which are found in that part of the Atlantic ocean.”

This narrative mirrors the historical events (allowing for a little political bravado) found in the Hittite tablets. So much so that by the 13th century BC, the King of Ahhiyawa is found on tablets to be delineated on the same level as the kings of Egypt, Babylon, Assyria and the Hittite king himself. The coastal regions of Asia Minor known as Arzawa with its capital at Apasa / Ephesus had hitherto been subjected to attacks coming from the Greek mainland. These attacks increased following the catastrophe. The attackers are referred to in the Hittite texts as Ahhiyawans. In the Atlantis narrative they appear as Athenians (who prior to the founding of Athens had lived in the Peloponnese). The Athenians were Ionian Greeks and the region of Arzawa that they eventually took over became known as Ionia in classical times. This readily explains why the Atlantis narrative is so heavily focused upon the deeds of the Athenians.

Geographical Location of Atlantis

Jowett’s translation speaks of Atlantis, however the original Greek text does not speak of ‘Atlantis’ but rather of the ‘land of Atlas’ which according to classical interpretations was unequivocally located in Asia Minor, a fact acknowledged by some ancient writers. Plato also did not use the word ‘ocean’, but rather the word pelagos which relates to any body of salty water. Likewise modern translations use the word continent when the concept of continents did not occur until the mid 17^th century AD.

Jowett used the word ‘circles’ to describe the layout of Atlantis and thereby produced a convoluted narrative. Plato used no such word, his word ‘wheels’ actually delineated arcs of land.  Following this lead and bearing in mind that the narrative is written from an Egyptian perspective, one can readily identify the areas in question. Anyone who has sailed along the coast from Rhodes to Ephesus can clearly see how well the description fits the location. The narrow straits of Cos and the Myndos peninsula, and that between Samos and Mount Mycale gives two distinct bands of land beyond which lies Ephesus / Apasa.

Assuwiya and Luwia not Asia and Lydia

This is supported by the information contained in the Myth of Myrina- who befriends the Atlantians, fights the Gorgons, and engages in a treaty of ‘friendship’ with Egypt- which when properly relocated to Asia Minor, can readily be followed on a map of the region. The seemingly fantastical myth of the Amazon Queen Myrina as well as the information contained in Nonnus’ turgid Dionysiaca are found to be historical reflections of events in the region from the 1790’s through to the 1200’s BC.

The term translated as ‘island’ also confused Jowett. In a specific context it could represent what can be termed an island, but equally in antiquity the word could also refer to a peninsula. Nobody seems to have noticed that the dimensions and shape given for the ‘larger’ island of Atlantis are virtually identical to the present-day dimensions and shape of the Asia Minor peninsula. Within this very large area were two historical kingdoms known as Assuwiya and Luwia these have been transposed in the Atlantis narrative as Asia and Libya.

In addition the narrative actually delineates two distinct areas. The larger ‘continent’ was the Asia Minor peninsula; whilst the smaller island related to the immediate area around Ephesus. Thus, the measurements given in the narrative are broadly in agreement with these geographical locations.

Another misinterpretation is that the city was located in the geographical center of this large peninsula. This is not the case. The description would have originally been based upon a periplus or sailing manual. These were used in antiquity and described linear coastal journeys from one point to the next. People would rarely voyage out of sight of land.  As such, sailing along the western coast of Asia Minor, Ephesus would lie approximately at the half-way point between north and south and therefore can be described as lying at the center. It is here that one encounters that flat flood-plain surrounded by high mountains, mentioned in the text. The repeated buildup of sediment has indeed made the sea unnavigable in those parts.

Mythology relates that immediately after the 1327 BC catastrophe, which inundated Troy and engulfed the entire region, Heracles is reputed to have set up his pillars. It was in this region that the Panionium was established opposite Samos by the Ionians. Further south inland from Heraclea in Caria were the White Pillars where the Chrysaoric League met, a confederacy of native Carian inhabitants.

However overlooked by many is the presence of what is now termed the Hercules Gate in Ephesus which separates uptown from downtown in the ancient Roman city in Ephesus. The extant pillars feature Hercules. Archaeologists surmise that the pillars may have been brought from other structures in the 4th century and that they date back to the second century AD. Notably in 262 BC Ephesus was hit by a devastating earthquake and tsunami resulting in enormous damage. This area in the region of Ephesus, was most probably the original location of the ‘Pillar’s of Hercules’. They would have been were set up following the destruction of Arzawa and the Greek takeover of Ephesus ( mythology knows of Heracles defeating Omphale but permitting the Amazons to remain in Ephesus after defeating them).

In confirmation of the location it is commonly by mistaken asserted that Plato’s description relates to the Strait of Gibraltar :

At that time, the ocean there was navigable, since there was an island in front of the strait which, as you say, you call the Pillars of Heracles. The island was bigger than Libya and Asia combined, and it provided passage at25a that time for those traveling to the other islands, and from there to the whole continent opposite which surrounds the sea which truly deserves that name. In fact, everything inside the strait we are talking about is evidently just a harbour with a narrow entrance, whereas that is the real ocean, and the land which completely surrounds it could truly be called ‘the continent’. (Timaeus 25 a)

“but now it has been submerged by earthquakes and creates a mass of impenetrable mud, which is an obstacle to those sailing from here to the open sea, so that they can no longer make voyages there. (Critias 108 e ff)

However these statements are wildly inaccurate for the Strait of Gibraltar but are a notably 100% accurate description for the location of Ephesus

Luwia in Asia Minor (later known as Lydia) has consistently been misinterpreted in translations as referring to Libya in North Africa.

Other Sources for the Cataclysmic Catastrophes

One frequently encounters claims that Plato is the only source of the narrative and therefore it must be a fabrication. By the same token therefore can one state that the Hittites are also a fabrication, because they are not mentioned in Greek sources? However, as some have pointed out for the latter, allusions to the Hittite hegemony can be found in ancient Greek narratives most notably to the keteioi who came to Troy’s assistance or to Teutamus who sent troops to assist the Trojans.

In like manner there are references to the Amazon army drowning in the Aegean Sea, or in the same time frame of Heracles simultaneously destroying the rulers and armies on both sides of the Aegean when Troy was inundated. In addition, one can now add the actions of the god Dionysus as a direct allusion to the Hittite empire. Historical memories of the catastrophe were to persist in the region until at least the sixth century AD when a sumptuous basilica was built by Emperor Justinian on the hill of Ayasuluk dedicated to St John, the author of the last book of the New Testament: the Book of Revelation.

Buy: Atlantis, the Amazons, and the Birth of Athene: https://www.amazon.com/Atlantis-Amazons-Birth-Athene-Story/dp/B0CHCX1D47

Bibliography:

Bryce, Trevor.1999. Kingdom of the Hittites. Oxford University Press

Isocrates. 436 BC-338 BC. To Philip

Lewis, Martin W.; Wigen, Kären E. (1997). The Myth of Continents: a Critique of Metageography

Liritzis, I., et al. 1996. An Aegean Volcanic Eruption During the Second Millennium B.C. Revealed by Thermoluminescence Dating. Archaeological and Archaeometrical Research at Yali,

Sampson, A. and Liritzis, I. 1998. Archaeological and archaeometrical research at Yali, Nissiros. TÜBA-AR 2: 101-15.

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Salzer, M.W. & Hughes. M.K. 2007. Bristlecone pine tree rings and volcanic eruptions over the last 5000 years. Quaternary Research 67: 57–68. Cambridge University Press

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Uslular G. and Gencalioglu. G. 2014. Kos-Nisyros-Yal? Volcanic System: Need for a New Risk Analyses in the Area?

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